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Some of the most significant and widely used products for steel framed buildings in the global construction market today have been developed by the Structural & Geotechnical Engineering Research Centre at City University London. Our work in this field has permitted a saving of between 25 and 30% in the amount of steel needed for such buildings, making them now on average 9% cheaper than their concrete equivalents. Our research data from this work is now incorporated into at least six Design Guides and two significant industry software suites, published by the Steel Construction Institute (SCI) [text removed for publication]. Steel frame build times have been reduced by up to 13% and the resulting buildings can be 20-50% more energy efficient, helping the industry move towards its `Target Zero' carbon goals.
The dynamic response of steel members and floor systems has been a key concern in the industry over the last decade. The work undertaken at City has been effective in helping bring new products to market and in improving the application of structural mechanics to real design situations. It has also made a significant contribution to the increasing success of the steel industry in the UK commercial building market.
Research led by two members of the University of Warwick's School of Engineering strongly influenced the planning, drafting and technical content of nearly all of Eurocode 4, one of ten European civil engineering standards. Eurocode 4 covers composite structures made of steel and concrete. Since 2010 this standard has been in force in all countries of the European Union (EU) and the European Free Trade Area (EFTA). The Eurocodes are the only set of design rules for publicly-funded structures on land that satisfy national building regulations throughout the EU and EFTA. Their impact on structural engineering is wide-ranging and growing, the principles and methodology contained within these Eurocode 4 will be the basis of engineering design teaching for Chartered Engineers throughout the EU.
National and International design codes are the key vehicles for enabling structural engineering research to impact on practice. Recent years have seen substantial advancements in such codes for stainless steel structures, to which Imperial has made outstanding contributions [A-E]. Imperial research has led directly to improved structural design provisions, enabling more efficient structures, leading to cost savings [G], further promotion of the use of stainless steel in construction [A,H,I] and a reduction in the use of construction resources. The impact and reach of Imperial's research has not only been throughout the industry (producers [H], code writers [A] and practitioners [G,I]) but also global, with widespread influence on UK, European, North American and Asian practice [A].
The key impact is in the definition of best practice for the design of joints, components and structures comprised of glass fibre reinforced polymers (GFRP, also known as fibreglass). The primary beneficiaries are (i) professional civil and structural engineering designers of GFRP structures; (ii) pultruders and composites fabricators due to continually expanding use of GFRPs in construction; and (iii) the general public through the provision of sustainable structures.
In particular, Lancaster's research on pultruded GFRP materials and structures has contributed to the EUROCOMP Design Code and Handbook (1996), the world's first limit state design code for GFRP structures. This code has influenced GFRP structural design globally ever since, both pre and post-2008. Additionally, post-2008, EUROCOMP has triggered and influenced development of new European and Japanese design codes, in turn impacting designers, fabricators and the public in those geographical regions. Lancaster's research has influenced the US Load and Resistance Factor (LRFD) Prestandard (2010) and ASCE's Manual No.102 on bolted and bonded joints (2011) two codes and guidelines that will accelerate the US's application of composites in construction.
Thus, the use of Lancaster's research in these codes and guidelines has supported the construction of fibreglass-based civil structures across the globe as well as the delivery of individuals with the analysis and design skills needed by the composites industry.
ERPE research, since 2001, into the application of Fibre Reinforced Polymer (FRP) composites for strengthening existing civil engineering structures continues to impact design guidelines for preserving and updating the worldwide ageing infrastructure. The lifetime extension of existing infrastructure and buildings is a priority: the UK Government plans to invest up to £250bn over 10 years to return UK infrastructure to `world class' performance. 75% of developed world infrastructure investment covers retrofitting and repair rather than new-build. FRP strengthening is now the method of choice for seismic retrofit, capacity enhancement, structural repair and rehabilitation of concrete and masonry structures.
ERPE research to enhance strength and structural integrity has been used in the development of, or been incorporated into, at least 12 design guides codes and standards worldwide in at least 5 countries including Australia, Canada, China etc.
£80m has been saved since 2008 by London Underground (LU) and yet more by bridge owners in the UK as a direct result of using the Arching Action (AA) enhancements in strength predicted by our research. The associated disruption would have resulted in enormous congestion, losses economically of £ billions and negative social impact. Multi-million $ savings have also accrued in North America from the use of corrosion free deck bridges, which have minimum maintenance, as has our innovative flexible concrete arch (patented 2004) which has been used for over 40 FlexiArch bridges (£15m in contracts) since 2008.
We have developed the Bailey-Method, design software FIRESOFT and a web-based information source for designers to use to produce safe and economical buildings. In buildings that have used the Bailey-Method, approximately 40% of the fire protection cost has been saved. The overall saving is about £20m in the UK over the REF period. The Bailey-Method has been presented in 2500 design guides (books), distributed to companies across Europe by ArcelorMittal, and translated into 17 languages. FIRESOFT and the associated quality assurance document enable using unprotected concrete filled tubular columns and have the British Standard status of Non Contradictory Complementary Information.
As academic lead partner Professor Ogden and his team at Oxford Brookes University were responsible for a major research programme focusing on the development of light steel construction technology. Major industry funding in conjunction with EU support, facilitated a detailed understanding of the technology, and various demonstration projects including the then largest light steel framed building in Europe, constructed at Oxford Brookes University. The results of the work have been adopted by industry in order to innovate novel construction solutions. As a consequence light steel framing is now the favoured method of construction across the entire modular off-site buildings sector and in other mass market construction applications including site-built structural framing and infill walling. The value of the market that that has emerged in the UK during the census period is estimated to be £78 million per annum.
This Case Study builds on our sustained effort since 1981 to understand the nature of steel to an extent that enables the quantitative design of novel alloys and processes. In 1997 this led to the development of Super Bainite high-performance armour steel with an internal structure distinguished by an unprecedentedly high population density of interfaces. In 2011 this was licensed to Tata Steel who started manufacture at their Port Talbot, South Wales plant. The steel is destined for armoured vehicles. In a perforated design it has higher ballistic mass efficiency and is less expensive than conventional armour. The work at Port Talbot has re-established UK sovereign production of high-performance steel armour, after a gap of over 20 years.
The development of standards and design guides at a European level for composite concrete floors with cellular steel beams has been informed by research undertaken in the Fire Safety Engineering Research and Technology centre (FireSERT), Built Environment Research Institute. Central to the impact is the establishment of technical rules for the fire safe design of buildings constructed with the use of cellular beams. Research at the University of Ulster has demonstrated that the use of unprotected cellular beams can reduce the cost of fire protection. This research was corroborated by a major fire test conducted at an international scientific conference hosted by FireSERT in February 2010. Design guidance for innovative safe structures in fire scenarios have been published in leading journals with high impact factors.